GENETICS

Introduction to Genetics and Variation
Observable Variations in Human Beings
Discontinuous and Continuous Variation
Causes of Variation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define genetics, heredity and variation. Explain the importance of studying genetics. Identify examples of variation in organisms.
Define discontinuous and continuous variation. Give examples of each type. Plot frequency distribution graphs for continuous variation.

Q/A on prior knowledge of inheritance. Brainstorming on observable differences in humans. Discussion on the meaning of genetics and heredity.
Analysis of tongue rolling and height data. Plotting frequency-height graphs on chalkboard. Discussion on differences between variation types.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk
Ink pad, plain paper, metre rule, exercise books
Graph paper, rulers, height data from previous lesson, textbook
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 1-2
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 3-4

GENETICS

Chromosome Structure

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe the structure of chromosomes. Define chromatids, centromere and genes. Explain homologous chromosomes and chromosome numbers.

Drawing labeled chromosome diagrams on chalkboard. Discussion on chromosome pairs in different species. Student drawing exercises.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, pencils

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 5-6

GENETICS

Chromosome Behaviour During Mitosis
Chromosome Behaviour During Meiosis

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Demonstrate chromosome behaviour during mitosis. Identify stages of mitosis. Explain importance of mitosis.

Practical activity using colored threads to model mitosis stages. Creating paper models of mitotic stages. Group discussions.

Colored threads (6cm and 3cm), scissors, manila paper, string for tying knots
Colored threads, manila paper, textbook

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 6-8

GENETICS

DNA Structure and Replication

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe the structure of DNA. Explain DNA replication process. Understand the role of DNA in heredity.

Drawing DNA double helix on chalkboard. Step-by-step explanation of replication. Discussion on base pairing rules.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 10-12

GENETICS

DNA and Protein Synthesis
Mendel's Experiments and First Law

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain role of DNA in protein synthesis. Describe mRNA formation and function. Understand genetic code concept.
Describe Mendel's experiments with garden peas. State Mendel's first law of inheritance. Explain reasons for Mendel's success.

Exposition on transcription and translation. Discussion on messenger RNA. Examples of genetic codes using chalkboard diagrams.
Q/A on Mendel's work. Detailed discussion of pea plant experiments using chalkboard diagrams. Analysis of F1 and F2 results.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 12-13
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 13-15

GENETICS

Monohybrid Inheritance Concepts

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define monohybrid inheritance, genotype, phenotype. Distinguish between dominant and recessive genes. Explain homozygous and heterozygous conditions.

Exposition on genetic terminology. Practice using genetic symbols on chalkboard. Discussion on gene expression patterns.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 15-17

GENETICS

Genetic Crosses and Punnet Squares

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Draw genetic cross diagrams. Use punnet squares to show genetic crosses. Predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.

Step-by-step construction of genetic crosses on chalkboard. Practice with punnet squares. Student exercises on genetic problems.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, pencils

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 17-18

GENETICS

Probability in Inheritance

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain probability in genetic inheritance. Calculate phenotypic and genotypic ratios. Demonstrate random events using coin tossing.

Mathematical analysis of genetic ratios. Coin tossing experiment to demonstrate probability. Statistical interpretation of results.

Coins, exercise books for recording, calculators (if available), textbook

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 18-19

GENETICS

Modeling Random Gamete Fusion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Demonstrate random fusion of gametes. Use simple materials to model inheritance. Analyze experimental vs expected results.

Practical activity using different colored beans to represent gametes. Data collection and analysis. Discussion on sample size effects.

Different colored beans (or maize grains), small containers, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 19-20

GENETICS

Complete Dominance Problems

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Solve genetic problems involving complete dominance. Analyze inheritance patterns in garden peas. Practice genetic calculations.

Worked examples of genetic problems on chalkboard. Practice sessions with various characteristics. Group problem-solving.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 20-21

GENETICS

Incomplete Dominance

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define incomplete dominance. Analyze inheritance in four o'clock plants. Compare with complete dominance patterns. Draw genetic crosses showing blending.

Exposition on incomplete dominance using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses showing blending inheritance. Practice problems with flower colors.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, colored chalk (if available)

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 22-24

GENETICS

ABO Blood Group System

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain multiple alleles concept. Describe ABO blood group inheritance. Understand co-dominance in blood groups. Solve blood group problems.

Detailed explanation of blood group genetics on chalkboard. Genetic crosses involving blood group inheritance. Practice problems and paternity cases.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 24-25

GENETICS

Rhesus Factor and Unknown Genotypes

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe Rhesus factor genetics. Explain test cross and back cross methods. Use selfing to determine genotypes.

Exposition on Rh factor inheritance using chalkboard. Demonstration of test cross technique. Practice problems on genotype determination.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 25-26

GENETICS

Sex Determination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe sex determination in humans and other animals. Explain XX/XY sex determination systems. Calculate probability of male/female offspring.

Exposition on sex chromosomes using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses for sex determination. Comparison with other animals.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 26-27

GENETICS

Gene Linkage

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define gene linkage and linkage groups. Explain inheritance of linked genes. Understand why some genes are inherited together.

Exposition on linked genes using simple diagrams. Examples from fruit fly genetics drawn on chalkboard. Discussion on chromosome maps.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 27-28

GENETICS

Sex-linked Inheritance - Color Blindness

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe sex-linked inheritance patterns. Explain color blindness inheritance. Construct and analyze pedigree charts.

Detailed exposition on X-linked inheritance using chalkboard. Genetic crosses for color blindness. Drawing simple pedigree charts.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, rulers

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 28-30

GENETICS

Sex-linked Inheritance - Haemophilia

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain haemophilia inheritance. Understand carrier females and affected males. Analyze inheritance through generations.

Exposition on haemophilia genetics. Drawing inheritance patterns on chalkboard. Practice with pedigree construction and analysis.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 30-31

GENETICS

Crossing Over and Recombination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain crossing over during meiosis. Understand how crossing over affects linkage. Describe formation of new gene combinations.

Detailed explanation of crossing over using simple diagrams. Examples of recombinant offspring drawn on chalkboard. Discussion on genetic variation.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, colored chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Page 31

GENETICS

Chromosomal Mutations - Non-disjunction

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define chromosomal mutations. Explain non-disjunction during meiosis. Describe Down's syndrome and other chromosome disorders.

Exposition on non-disjunction using chalkboard diagrams. Drawing normal vs abnormal chromosome sets. Discussion on genetic disorders.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 32-35

GENETICS

Chromosomal Mutations - Polyploidy

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe structural chromosome changes. Explain polyploidy in plants. Understand chromosome number variations.

Exposition on chromosome number changes. Examples of polyploidy in agriculture using chalkboard. Discussion on plant breeding applications.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 35-36

GENETICS

Gene Mutations
Genetic Disorders - Albinism

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define gene mutations. Describe insertion, deletion, substitution and inversion. Explain effects on protein synthesis using analogies.
Describe albinism inheritance. Explain enzyme deficiency in albinism. Calculate inheritance probabilities. Draw genetic crosses.

Detailed exposition on point mutations using simple examples. Use SMS text analogies for mutations. Discussion on protein changes.
Case study of albinism using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses for albinism inheritance. Discussion on carrier parents and affected children.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, simple text examples
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 36-38
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 38-40

GENETICS

Genetic Disorders - Albinism

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe albinism inheritance. Explain enzyme deficiency in albinism. Calculate inheritance probabilities. Draw genetic crosses.

Case study of albinism using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses for albinism inheritance. Discussion on carrier parents and affected children.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 38-40

GENETICS

Genetic Disorders - Sickle Cell Anaemia

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe sickle cell anaemia inheritance. Explain hemoglobin differences. Understand sickle cell trait vs disease.

Exposition on sickle cell genetics using diagrams. Comparison of normal and sickle cell hemoglobin. Genetic crosses and probabilities.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 40-42

GENETICS

Environmental Effects on Gene Expression

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain gene-environment interactions. Describe phenotypic plasticity. Understand limitations of genetic determinism.

Discussion on environmental influences using local examples. Plant growth under different conditions. Twin studies and environmental factors.

Textbook, local plant examples, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 42-43

GENETICS
EVOLUTION

Applications of Genetics
Meaning of Evolution and Origin of Life Theories

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify applications in plant and animal breeding. Explain genetic counselling. Understand blood transfusion genetics. Introduce genetic engineering basics.
Define evolution and organic evolution. Distinguish between special creation and chemical evolution theories. Explain the scientific approach to understanding life's origin.

Exposition on practical genetics applications. Local examples of plant breeding. Discussion on genetic counselling process and medical applications.
Brainstorming on how life began. Discussion on religious vs scientific explanations. Exposition on chemical evolution theory. Comparison of different viewpoints.

Textbook, local breeding examples, chalkboard
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 43-49
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 53-55

EVOLUTION

Chemical Evolution and Miller's Experiment

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe Miller's spark discharge experiment. Explain formation of organic compounds from simple molecules. Understand primitive earth conditions.

Detailed exposition on Miller's experimental setup using chalkboard diagrams. Discussion on primitive atmosphere composition. Analysis of experimental results and significance.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, simple laboratory glassware for demonstration

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 53-55

EVOLUTION

Evidence for Evolution - Fossil Records

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define fossils and explain fossil formation. Describe types of fossils. Analyze fossil evidence for evolution. Understand geological time scale.

Exposition on fossil formation processes. Examination of any available fossil specimens or pictures. Discussion on fossil records of humans and other organisms. Timeline construction on chalkboard.

Textbook, any available fossil specimens, pictures from textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 55-62

EVOLUTION

Geographical Distribution and Comparative Embryology

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain biogeographical evidence for evolution. Describe continental drift effects on species distribution. Compare embryological development in vertebrates.

Discussion on animal and plant distribution patterns. Examination of world map showing species distribution. Drawing embryological stages on chalkboard. Comparison of vertebrate embryos.

Textbook, world map, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 60-63

EVOLUTION

Comparative Anatomy - Homologous Structures

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define homologous structures. Examine pentadactyl limb in different vertebrates. Explain divergent evolution. Identify adaptive modifications.

Practical examination of bone specimens or pictures. Drawing and labeling pentadactyl limbs of different animals. Discussion on common ancestry evidence. Comparison of limb modifications.

Textbook, bone specimens (if available), pictures of animal limbs, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 63-67

EVOLUTION

Comparative Anatomy - Homologous Structures
Comparative Anatomy - Analogous and Vestigial Structures

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define homologous structures. Examine pentadactyl limb in different vertebrates. Explain divergent evolution. Identify adaptive modifications.
Define analogous and vestigial structures. Compare bird and insect wings. Give examples of vestigial organs. Explain convergent evolution.

Practical examination of bone specimens or pictures. Drawing and labeling pentadactyl limbs of different animals. Discussion on common ancestry evidence. Comparison of limb modifications.
Examination of bird and insect wing specimens. Drawing wing structures on chalkboard. Discussion on vestigial organs in humans and other animals. Examples of convergent evolution.

Textbook, bone specimens (if available), pictures of animal limbs, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books
Textbook, wing specimens (bird feathers, insect specimens), chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 63-67
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 67-70

EVOLUTION

Cell Biology and Comparative Serology Evidence

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe cellular evidence for evolution. Explain biochemical similarities in organisms. Understand serological tests for evolutionary relationships.

Discussion on universal cellular features. Exposition on ATP, DNA similarities across species. Explanation of blood protein comparisons. Simple demonstration of precipitation reactions.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, simple solutions for demonstration (if available)

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 69-70

EVOLUTION

Lamarck's Theory vs Darwin's Theory

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics. Describe Darwin's theory of natural selection. Compare and contrast both theories. Understand scientific acceptance criteria.

Exposition on Lamarck's giraffe example using chalkboard drawings. Detailed explanation of Darwin's natural selection theory. Comparison table construction. Discussion on scientific evidence.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 71-73

EVOLUTION

Natural Selection in Action

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. Describe peppered moth example. Model cryptic coloration effects. Understand environmental selection pressures.

Practical activity modeling cryptic coloration using paper cutouts. Discussion on peppered moth case study. Examples of predator-prey relationships. Analysis of selection pressures.

White and black paper, scissors, textbook, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 73-75

EVOLUTION

Modern Examples of Evolution and Resistance

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe antibiotic and pesticide resistance. Explain sickle cell trait advantage in malaria areas. Understand ongoing evolutionary processes. Apply evolutionary principles to current issues.

Discussion on drug-resistant bacteria and insects. Case study of malaria and sickle cell trait. Examples of rapid evolutionary changes. Q/A session and topic review.

Textbook, local examples of pesticide resistance, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 75-77

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Meaning of Stimulus, Response and Irritability; Types of Responses

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define stimulus, response and irritability. Explain the need for sensitivity and response. Define taxis and different types of tactic responses. Explain survival value of responses.

Brainstorming on environmental changes. Discussion on stimulus-response concept using daily examples. Exposition on irritability and tactic responses. Practical observation of simple responses in termites/insects using local materials.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, bread crumbs, termites or other insects, dry sand

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 78-81

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Tropisms in Plants - Types and Survival Value

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define tropisms. Distinguish between phototropism, geotropism, and thigmotropism. Explain positive and negative tropic responses. Describe adaptive significance of tropisms.

Exposition on tropic responses using chalkboard diagrams. Examination of seedlings showing different tropisms. Practical observation of plant responses. Discussion on survival advantages. Setup of simple tropism experiments.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, seedlings, cardboard boxes for light experiments, local plant examples

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 81-85

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Nastic Responses and Role of Auxins

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define nastic responses. Describe types of nastic movements. Explain what auxins are and their functions. Describe how auxins control tropic responses.

Exposition on nastic responses using diagrams. Discussion on Mimosa pudica responses. Detailed exposition on auxin mechanism using chalkboard diagrams. Simple demonstrations of auxin effects on plant growth.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, Mimosa plant (if available), simple seedlings for auxin demonstration

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 84-89

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Introduction to Nervous System and Neurone Structure

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe the need for co-ordination in animals. Compare nervous and endocrine systems. Describe structure of nerve cells. Distinguish between sensory, motor, and relay neurones.

Exposition on animal co-ordination systems. Discussion on rapid vs slow responses. Drawing neurone structures on chalkboard. Detailed exposition on neurone types and functions. Student drawing exercises.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, pencils, rulers

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 89-92

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Brain Structure and Functions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe structure of the human brain. Identify major parts: cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata. Explain functions of each brain part. Describe protective features.

Drawing brain structure on chalkboard. Exposition on brain anatomy and protection. Detailed discussion on brain part functions. Q&A on voluntary vs involuntary activities. Case studies of brain injuries.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, colored chalk (if available)

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 92-95

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Spinal Cord and Reflex Actions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe structure and functions of spinal cord. Define reflex action. Distinguish between simple and conditioned reflexes. Describe reflex arc components.

Drawing spinal cord cross-section on chalkboard. Exposition on spinal cord functions. Practical demonstration of knee-jerk reflex. Drawing reflex arc diagrams. Discussion on reflex vs voluntary actions.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, simple tools for reflex testing

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 95-98

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Nerve Impulse Transmission and Synapses

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain resting potential and action potential. Describe nerve impulse transmission. Describe structure and function of synapses. Explain role of neurotransmitters.

Detailed exposition on nerve impulse transmission using diagrams. Discussion on ionic movements and electrical changes. Drawing synapse structure. Exposition on chemical transmission at synapses.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, simple analogies using local examples

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 98-100

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Endocrine System and Hormone Functions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define hormones and endocrine glands. Compare endocrine and nervous systems. Identify major endocrine glands. Explain negative feedback mechanism.

Exposition on endocrine system concept. Drawing endocrine gland locations on chalkboard. Detailed comparison between nervous and endocrine control. Discussion on hormone transport and target organs.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 100-101

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Thyroxine and Adrenaline Functions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe functions of thyroid and adrenal glands. Explain effects of thyroxine on metabolism. Explain effects of adrenaline on body systems. Understand related disorders.

Detailed exposition on thyroxine functions and disorders. Discussion on hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Exposition on adrenaline effects during emergencies. Case studies of hormone-related conditions.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, local health examples

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 101-103

RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

Drug Abuse Effects on Coordination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify commonly abused drugs. Explain effects of drug abuse on nervous system. Describe health consequences of drug abuse. Understand prevention strategies.

Discussion on local drug abuse problems. Exposition on drug effects on coordination and health. Health education on drug abuse prevention. Case studies from local community. Group discussions on prevention strategies.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, local health examples, community case studies

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 103-104